United States Essay Example for Free

United States Essay My life is different today than what it was seven years ago. Seven years ago, I lived in my home country, Bangladesh, and now I am currently live in the United States of America. First of all, In Bangladesh, I was in middle school. Attending middle school wasn’t too hard. It was actually a bit fun. In middle school, I had less homework to do, and it was fairly since I did not have many responsibilities. Now I am in college, attending Macomb community college. I am getting really stressed out and having many types of difficulties. I am struggling to keep good grades and have lots of homework to do daily. I had many friends during my days in high school, but as I attended college, friends grew apart; now I am stuck with just a few. Secondly, I did not have any responsibilities seven years ago. But as an adult, now I have to learn to take care of many responsibilities and give my all to live successfully. I did not know how to even cook at the age of 15, but now I know how to cook pretty much everything. Finally, in Bangladesh, I did not need to drive since everything in my town was close. Living in America, on the other hand, I am forced to have transportation to get around. Therefore, I had to get my license to accomplish each day’s task. Many changes have occurred in the last seven years in my life; however, these changes made me live up and the face world daily.

Effect of Public Place for Urban Poor’s Benefit in Kind

Effect of Public Place for Urban Poor’s Benefit in Kind Introduction The development of cities was marked by the amount of people living in them. The demand of descent infrastructure services was fulfilled with the construction of infrastructure that fulfills the needs of low, middle and upper class people in the society. Nevertheless, the phenomenon that happened in Indonesia cities is with the construction of large scale infrastructures, there are more poor people living near them. With the rapid growth of city development, poverty is globally moving into the cities. Few conditions that caused by poverty are: people who don’t have a sustainable access, created slum area; almost everyday, cities are filled with vagrants and beggars; a large gap in education and health services between the rich and the poor; the formation of slum area caused by the population growth from the rapid flow of urbanization or migration. Until 2010, there are dozens of public infrastructures like health, education, trade and open space facilities gave attractions and opportunities for poor people multiplier effects. According to Jung et al (Jung, S et al, 2009), government expenditures for public facilities was purposed to eradicate poverty level in cities. However, the development of public facilities as one of city attractions can cause the migration of poor people to the cities. Globalisation, migration and social exclusion are often the keywords employed to explain this process of spatial concentration of especially long-term unemployed and immigrant and ethnic minority communities. The availability of public facilities as an attraction factor for poor people activities are analyzed using Geoda to identify spatial effect (Anselin, et al, 2004). Poverty in the City According to the World Bank Institute (2005), poverty is a lack of well-being where the poor can be defined as someone who does not have enough income or minimum adequate consumption levels. Poverty can be defined based on the monetary value, the type of consumption, housing, or the poor health. The macro approach on poverty and well-being focused on individuals ability to function in society, such as income, education, health, powerlessness, and lack of freedom in politics. According to Vincen (Vincen, 2009), poverty is a multidimensional problem that goes beyond economic issues as it relates to social, political, and cultural. Poverty is a form of human conflicts resulting from reactions due to lack of basic needs, biological, and psychological. Characteristics of urban poverty can be reviewed based on three-dimensional indicators of poverty. Based on the national poverty reduction strategy by Bappenas (2004), the three-dimensional nature of poverty can be use to measured in-kind benefits such as: Income. Income are affected by poor peoples livelihood that has shortcomings in terms of skill and willingness resulting non-permanent work. Most of the income derived from employment in the informal sector, because the formal sector is not able to absorb low-skilled labor. Other occupations carried out by the urban poor are high risk occupations where there are no guarantees of sustainability. The impacts derived from the low income are problems in the ownership of land and basic services. Education. The urban poor have limited access to educational services caused by the gap of education costs, limited educational facilities, cost of education, limited access to education; high education costs both direct and indirect costs (Bappenas, 2004). The impact of these problems are the poor people are not able to get a steady job, lack of constructive activities to improve the skills of young people of school age, and gender inequalities. Health. Poor people who work in the informal sector are at risk of having a low income. This causes an inability to reach basic services such as decent housing. The urban poor are dominated by people who do not have a chance urbanization decent tenure thus creating a slum area. The physical condition of housing and income limitations will lead to low purchasing power for accessing health and preserving the environment. Infrastructure Services Utoro (Utoro, 2006) suggested that services embody the organization of to the community as the fulfillment of needs and interests. Public services fulfill primary need which includes service levels, patterns of distribution, outreach, and the tendency of the level of need. Most of the infrastructure can be regarded as a public facility, the facilities provided by the government or private managed in order to meet the needs of the community are typically in the form of roads, bridges, buildings, open spaces, and so on. Social activities and economic activities characterize the development of a city. One indicator of the dynamic development of the city can be seen from the economic conditions of the city (urban economic). In general, the characteristics of urban development can be determined by the capacity of infrastructure and facilities in a city. That condition indicates that the infrastructure and facilities are very vital part in the development of a city. Infrastructure is a key foundation in social and economic activities. According to Dardak (Dardak, 2008), infrastructure services are part of the public sector to enable private sector and household consumption activities. The dynamics of the economy of a city is determined by how much the efficiency of the use of space or land-use patterns for the activity of the economic infrastructure in the city. The economic development of the city will be determined by the dynamics of trading systems that exist in the city and also in the surrounding area. Klojen District Klojen District located in Malang urban center area has the most complete public facilities services and the most densed population in Malang urban area. According to Klojen District Detailed Plan year 2010-2030, Klojen District is planned as the center for regional service for Malang city. Klojen District functioned as the center for education, trade, public service and public administration. According to Malang Statistic Biro (BPS) data year 2011, there are 10.328 poor household living in Klojen District. Methods To identify whether there are neighbouring spatial effect between benefit in kind for the poor in public space and public space services using Geoda, the Klojen District is divided into 37 blocks as analysis unit, using physical boundary (road and river), administration boundary and the distribution of public space. The public space characteristics used in this research are: accesibility, service level, capacity, sidewalk availability, sidewalk pavement, parking availability, open space availability, lighting, security, visitor and activities. Whilst public space benefit in kind for the poor are divided into economic, education and health benefits. Collecting data is used questionnaires to obtain information from the respondents and field observations to obtain data of infrastructure services. The multiple spatial regression is used to create a model of relationship of infrastructure services and benefit in kind the poor. In this research, Geographic Information System (GIS) by ArcMap is used as basic data to analisys in spatial statistic program. Using computer program known as GeoDa, spatial autocorrelation, Moran’s I values, and spatial regression for each variable was able to be calculated. The results of the analysis presented in following: Spatial weights, which describes the relationship between the neighborhood polygons with another polygon. In this analysis will note the number of blocks that are affected and will be included in the model equations; Formula spatial model with the multiple regression model as follows Y1= A.W+ B + a.X1 + b. X2 + c.X3 + d.X4 + e.X5 + f. X6 + ..+k.X27(1) Y2= A.W+ B + a.X1 + b. X2 + c.X3 + d.X4 + e.X5 + f. X6 + ..+k.X27(2) Y3= A.W+ B + a.X1 + b. X2 + c.X3 + d.X4 + e.X5 + f. X6 + ..+k.X27(3) Y1: Economic Benefit (Rp) Y2: Education Benefit (Rp) Y3: Health Benefit (Rp) A: Lambda W: Spatial Weight B: Constants a-k: Variabel Coeffisient X1-11: Independent Variables Spatial multiple regression analysis performed spatial weight and the value of Lagrange Multiplier (LM) Lag and Lagrange Multiplier (LM). The spatial model based on the results of statistical tests that showed the significant value and also it can be seen by the largest value of determinant coefficient (R2). Table 1. Blocks code in Klojen, Malang No Sub District Block code No Sub District Block code 1 Rampal Celaket 65111-1 20 Kasin 65117-2 2 Klojen 65111-2 21 Kasin 65117-3 3 Klojen 65111-3 22 Kasin 65117-4 4 Klojen 65111-4 23 Sukoharjo 65118-1 5 Klojen 65111-5 24 Sukoharjo 65118-2 6 Klojen 65111-6 25 Sukoharjo 65118-3 7 Samaan 65112-1 26 Sukoharjo 65118-4 8 Samaan 65112-2 27 Sukoharjo 65118-5 9 Samaan 65112-3 28 Kauman 65119-1 10 Penanggungan 65113-1 29 Kauman 65119-2 11 Penanggungan 65113-2 30 Kauman 65119-3 12 Gadingkasri 65115-1 31 Kauman 65119-4 13 Gadingkasri 65115-2 32 Oro-Oro Dowo 65119-5 14 Gadingkasri 65115-3 33 Oro-Oro Dowo 65119-6 15 Gadingkasri 65115-4 34 Oro-Oro Dowo 65119-7 16 Bareng 65116-1 35 Kiduldalem 65119-8 17 Bareng 65116-2 36 Kiduldalem 65119-9 18 Bareng 65116-3 37 Kiduldalem 65119-10 19 Kasin 65117-1 Benefit in Kind According to Suwandi (Suwandi, 2004), the poor in urban and rural areas should be able to obtain basic services consisting of economic, educational, and health. Economic benefits, the amount of the benefit that is obtained directly from the income received each month by the community so that it can be used as a savings or investment. Benefits of Education. In the economic benefit, education can be used as one of the indirect benefits received. Educational benefits are the amount of rupiahs set aside for educational purposes such as schools, courses, equipment purchases, and so on. Health Benefits. In addition to education, health can be used as one of the indirect benefits received. Health benefits are the amount of rupiahs set aside for health reasons such as health insurance, the benefit of treatment, and so on. Value of benefit in kind and infrastructure variables in each block is represented by highest value, lowest value, and average value. The minimum and maximum value show the benefit from services that in each blocks, while the average value is the general description of services provided by the blocks. Results Accessibility Accessibility is measured by distance (in meters) between the poor settlements and public facility. A maximum accessibility value à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹is 22.000 meters, while the minimum value is 50 m. This phenomenon suggests that there were a lot of different accessibility characteristics. Poor peoples that worked in the infrastructure services are not only lived in Klojen, but also have been coming from outside of Malang. Level of infrastructure Level of infrastructure is measured by scale of services. Hierarchy of infrastructure level is divided into three levels (districts, cities, and regional). Maximum value of infrastructure level is located in block 65112-2 because there are facilities which serve districts, cities, and regional scale. Capacity of facilities Capacity of facility is measured by area (in square meter) where the activity of poor people conducted in each blcoks. The maximum capacity or à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹the largest facilities is 29,100 m2, while the minimum value of the variable is 300 m2. Capacity of facilities Capacity of facility is measured by area (in meter square) where the activity of poor people happened for each blocks. The maximum capacity or à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹the largest facilities is 29,100 m2, while the minimum value of the variable is 300 m2. Pavementt Pavement is measured by the types of pavement of the pedestrian way where the activity of poor people conducted in each block. Pavement variable are divided into 4 types: cement, paving, soil, and without pedestrian way. The highest score is located in block 65117-2 where there are full of cement pedestrian way that supports and facilitates people activities. Open space area Open space area is measured by the area (in square meter) of open space where the activity of poor people happened for each block. Maximum value is 2500 m2 and it’s located in 65119-8, while the minimum value is located in blocks without open space facilities. Number of lighting Lighting is measured by the number of lighting facilities where the activity of poor people conducted in each block. The maximum value of variable is 24 lightings and located in block 65111-1 and 65111-4. The minimum value is located in blocks without lighting facilities. Number of security Security variable is measured by the number of security posts where the activity of poor people conducted in each block. A maximum value à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹is 6 security posts, while the minimum values are located in block without security facilities. Number of Visitor Visitor is measured by the number of visitors per day to the facility where the activity of poor people conducted in each block. Maximum value of this variable is 5,000 visitors per day, while the minimum value of the variable is 25 visitors per day. The number of visitors is related to the infrastructure scale. The economic benefits The economic benefits are measured by the value of income (in rupiahs) that was earned every month because of the poor’s working activities in infrastructure services in each block. A maximum economic benefit is Rp12.000.000 per month and it is located in 65119-5, while the minimum value is Rp300.000 per month. Educational benefits Educational benefits are measured by the value of income which can be saved to education purpose (in rupiahs) that was collected every month because of the poor’s working activities in infrastructure services in each block. Maximumt educational is Rp 1.500.000 per month, while the minimum value is Rp 0. Health Benefits Health benefits are measured by the value of income which can be saved to health purpose (in rupiahs) that was earned every month because of working activities in infrastructure services in each block. Maximum value of the health benefits is Rp500.000 per month, while the minimum value is only Rp3000 per month. Spatial autocorrelation is the correlation of a variable to itself through space. This means that spatial autocorrelation quantifies everything are related to everything else, but nearer things are more related than distant things. By investigating spatial autocorrelation, it is possible to test the strength of spatial autocorrelation throughout a map. Meanwhile, Moran’s I is the statistical standard for determining spatial autocorrelation. The strength of autocorrelation is based on a range from -1 to 1. As the resulting product of the Moran’s I calculation approaches 1, the stronger the spatial correlation. Based on the analysis, Moran’s I value of 0.2782, 0.2397 and 0.1152 for all dependent variables, the amount of spatial autocorrelation is minimal. This suggests that where economic, education, and health benefits are located is a function of randomness. Meanwhile, benefits value in the nearest neighbouring blocks is not much affect the high value of benefits in each block. Using Geoda spatial regression, Moran’s I test and Local Indicator Spatial Autocorrelation (LISA), obtained neighbouring spatial correlation model between urban public space characteristics with benefit in kind for urban poor. Table 1 Benefit in Kind Spatial Regression Model Spatial Regression Model Y1 = 1435434+ 0,2837605.W + 483262,9.X10 + 167479,6.X18 Y2 = -2600942 – 0,3221031.W + 20,94021.X1 + 15,33539.X5 + 3581828.X10 + 158529.X11 + 145914,6.X18+ 212624,8.X19 – 304595,4.X20– 368676,7.X21 + 654824,5.X23 Y3 = 22567,75 + 0,1570038.W + 2026,002.X14 + 385,74.X15 + 51283,1.X18 +69346,33.X19 99900,86.X20 + 230,9778.X24 +248,4346.X25 Y1 : Maximum Economic Benefit Y2: Maximum Education Benefit Y3: Maximum Health Benefit W: Spatial Weight (Neighbouring effect) X1: Maximum Accesibility X5: Maximum Capacity X10: Average Sidewalk Width X11: Sidewalk pavement X14: Average Parking Space X15: Maximum Open Space X18: Maximum Lighting X19: Minimum Lighting X20: Average Lighting X21: Maximum Security Post X23: Average Security Post X24: Maximum Visit X25: Minimum Visit Conclusion Cluster Map of Local Indicator Spatial Autocorrelation (LISA) shows that the value of each benefit in kinds is not concentrated in a particular region based on the autocorrelation value. This suggests that economic, education, and health benefits are located is a random function. Whereas, benefits value in the nearest neighbour block is not much affecting the high value of benefits in block. Implicitly, the models suggests that the poor act rationally in determining the location of work based of infrastructure services that provide advantages more than the groups of nearest infrastructure in neighboring blocks. Bibliography Anselin, et al. 2004. Geoda: An Introduction to Spatial Data Analysis. USA: Urbana Champaign Badan Pusat Statistik.2012. Perkembangan Beberapa Indikator Utama Sosial-Ekonomi Indonesia. Jakarta: Badan Pusat Statistik Indonesia Bappenas.2004. Strategi Nasional Penanggulangan Kemiskinan Bab II. Jakarta: Bappenas Dardak, H. 2008. Pembangunan Infrastruktur secara Terpadu dan Berkelanjutan Berbasis Penataan Ruang. Direktorat Jendral Penataan Ruang Jung, S et al. 2009. Public Expenditure and Poverty Reduction in Southern United States. Presented at the Southern Agriculture Economics Association Annual Meeting, Atlanta January 31-February Suwandi. 2004. Perencanaan dan Strategi Penanggulangan Kemiskinan di Daerah.Jakarta: SMERU Utoro, R.I. 2006. Kajian Optimalisasi dan Tingkat Pelayanan Sarana Dasar di Kota Kecamatan Jalancagak-Subang. Tesis Dipublikasikan. Semarang: Universitas Diponegoro. Vincen, B. 2009. The Relationship between Poverty, Conflict, and Development. Journal of Sustainable Development. 2(1): 15-28 World Bank Institute. 2005. Introduction to Poverty Analysis: Poverty Manual.

The clinical efficacy of salvia officinalis

The clinical efficacy of salvia officinalis An evaluation of the clinical efficacy of Salvia officinalis, Salvia lavandulaefolia and Melissa officinalis for the prophylaxis, management and amelioration of cognitive dysfunction: with particular reference to Alzheimers disease and non-Alzheimer-type senile dementias. 1. Introduction Dementia is a collection of symptoms caused by a chronic, global deterioration of cognitive function. It can occur at any age but is most prevalent in the elderly and increases with age (Beers et al. 2006: 1811). Around 5% of people over 65, 25% over 80 and 45% over 85 have some form of dementia (Knapp et al. 2007: 10; Collins 1997: 185). The population is aging and whereas today there is an estimated 700,000 people in the UK suffering from dementia, this number is set to increase to more than a million by 2025. The huge impact dementia has on society, devastating families and costing around  £17-18 million annually cannot be overstated (Knapp et al. 11). Early identification and safe, effective, intervention is therefore important. Dementia may be classified as Alzheimers or non-Alzheimer-types (Beers et al. 2006: 1811). The most common dementia is Alzheimers disease (AD) (Grossman et al. 2006: 985), affecting around 20 million people worldwide (Akhondzadeh et al. 2003: 53) and accounting for around 62% of dementias (Knapp et al. 2007: 11). Non-Alzheimer-type dementias typically affecting those over 60 include vascular dementia (27%), Lewy body dementia and fronto-temporal dementia (Knapp et al. 29). Cognitive disorders are treated allopathically with drugs that have yet to show real benefits and have a number of side-effects and contraindications. The need for safer, more effective treatments has led to increasing interest in the use of herbs for their management (Akhondzadeh and Abbasi 2006: 117). A variety of herbs, for example Salvia officinalis, Rosmarinus officinalis, Mellissa officinalis, Ginkgo biloba (Heinrich et al 2004: 234), Withania somnifera (Howes et al. 2003: 12), Centella asiatica (Chevallier 1996: 78) and Panax ginseng (Mantle et al. 2000: 207) have long-standing traditional use as memory-enhancing herbs. Consequently a number of clinical studies have been conducted to assess the efficacy of some of these herbs, most notably Ginkgo biloba, Salvia spp. and Mellissa officinalis, in the treatment of cognitive disorders. Of these, only clinical trials of Gingko biloba have been extensively reviewed (Birks and Grimley Evans 2002; Ernst et al. 1999; Oken et al. 1998). This present review aims to fill this gap by providing up-to-date information on whether clinical studies of Salvia spp. and Mellissa officinalis support their traditional use as cognition enhancers. To inform herbal practice it will evaluate clinical studies to assess whether the results have determined safe, effective herbal strategies and prescription for prophylaxis, management and amelioration of cognitive decline. 2. The literature review 2.1. Background: clinical presentation and pathology Although much scientific progress has been made since 1907 when Alois Alzheimer first described a case of dementia with â€Å"peculiar patches† disseminated throughout the cerebral cortex (Collins 1997: 185), there is still much to learn about the aetiology and pathogenesis of Alzheimers disease and other dementias (Knapp et al. 2007: 11). The onset of dementia is insidious, often beginning as mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and progressing to severe dementia over time (Loveman et al. 2006: 4). In the early stages, episodes of mild forgetfulness or misplacing possessions are often attributed to normal aging. Patients commonly suffer from anomic aplasia and agnosia but retain language comprehension (Collins 1997: 186). Dementia becomes more apparent when sufferers are unable to learn new information, to register the content of a conversation, or to recall recent events or the names of family members. Unlike those with benign forgetfulness, dementia patients are unaware of their amnesia. Frequently, there are mood changes, depression and other psychologic disturbances. Language comprehension fails (aphasia) and eventually patients may simply repeat what they hear or be unable to speak at all. Visuospacial deficits usually occur at a late stage (Collins 1997: 186). Those affected have difficulty in copy drawing simple obj ects. Differential diagnosis between MCI subtypes of various and complex aetiologies is challenging (Kidd 1999: 145). As some MCI subtypes are reversible (Levey et al. 2006: 992) prophylaxis for dementia could potentially encompass a range of varied or unknown aetiologies and risk factors. Knowledge of these and an awareness of differing clinical presentations are therefore important (Levey et al: 991). Additionally, an understanding of current orthodox treatment strategies and key neurochemical impairments in dementia can inform herbal practice of the most likely therapeutic actions of herbs. 2.1.1. Alzheimers disease As clinical studies have indicated that mild to moderate Alzheimers disease (AD) responds better to allopathic drugs than severe AD (Levey et al: 2006: 993), to prevent transition of MCI to AD early diagnosis is important. Evidence suggests that MCI associated with memory loss most commonly leads to AD (Levey et al. 991) and results of a clinicopathologic study of 80 subjects with MCI through to autopsy suggest that depression is one of the first features of AD (Galvin et al. 2005: 763). Formation of diffuse neuritic senile plaques in the brain is characteristic of AD but as these can only be determined from biopsy (Collins 1997: 186) probable diagnosis is made by clinical neuropsychological testing (Grossman et al. 2006: 986) such as the Mini Mental state Examination (MMSE) (Alzheimers Society 2002: 436), while magnetic resonance imaging can corroborate diagnosis by identifying areas of temporal neuronal loss (Vandenberghe and Tournay 2004: 347). Progression of AD is unremitting for around 5-10 years until death ensues. In the final stages sufferers may develop apraxia, with difficulty in performing familiar tasks. A common cause of death is pneumonia when patients eventual difficulty with eating results in aspiration pneumonia (Collins 1997: 186). The loss of faculties has been ascribed to both structural and neurochemical abnormalities (Perry et al. 1996: 1063). Senile plaques in the brains of AD patients contain amyloid and tau protein (microtubule associated protein) (Collins 1997: 188). Since isolation of b-amyloid peptide from cerebral vessels in AD patients (Wong et al. 1984: 8729), the accepted hypothesis for the pathogenesis of AD has been the ‘amyloid hypothesis, which proposes that AD is due to excessive formation of extracellular b-amyloid (Ab?) from amyloid precursor protein (APP), a membrane protein in neurons (Grossman et al. 2006: 986). It is thought that Ab molecules initiate a toxic cascade long before plaque forms by causing an inflammatory reaction, disrupting synaptic function and causing neurons to degenerate (Grossman et al. 986) with a loss of cholinergic fibres in the basal forebrain. In vitro results suggest that Ab enters mitochondria and induces free radical damage (Reddy 2006: 9). Intracellular neurofibrillary tangles are believed to be formed by abnormal phosphorylation of tau proteins (Tanzi and Bertram 200 5: 545), particularly in the hippocampus and neocortex, areas of the brain involved in memory (Mantle et al. 2000: 202). To date, thirteen genes have been implicated in AD (Bertram et al. 2007: 17). Of sporadic late onset Alzheimers up to 40% of cases may be due to a faulty gene on chromosome 21, ApoE4, an isoform of the ApoE gene that encodes for apolipoprotein, an astrocytic protein that may play a role in the reparative process in the brain. ApoE4s pathogenetic mechanism may be to enhance amyloid deposits within tissue by accelerating cleavage of b-peptide (Collins 1997: 189). Possession of a gene implicated in AD does not necessarily result in its development, the likelihood of which is further complicated by the potential role of environmental factors such as viruses and toxins in combination with genetic factors (Bird 2005: 864). 2.1.2. Vascular dementia Vascular dementia (VaD) is any type of dementia caused by cerebral blood vessel disease (Micieli 2006: S37). Onset of VaD is usually abrupt. Imaging may reveal areas of multiple infarcts (Collins 1997: 191) but their presence does not necessarily imply dementia (Grossman 2006: 987). According to Looi and Sachdev (1999) it is not possible to differentiate between AD and VaD with neuropsychological testing. Speech and language difficulties associated with vascular dementia may be mild or there may be a more pronounced aphasia as in multi-infarct VaD (Collins 1997: 191). 2.1.3. Frontal lobe dementia Frontal lobe dementia or Picks disease is uncommon and is characterised by neuronal loss and gliosis. Rarely, there are fibrillary inclusion bodies in the neurons. Presentation of frontal lobe dementia differs from AD in that the first symptoms are a change in personality rather than memory loss (Collins 1997: 193). 2.1.4. Lewy body dementias Dementia with Lewy bodies may differ to AD in its presentation in that patients suffer from marked visual hallucinations. Additionally, cognition tends to fluctuate between normality and confusion. Parkinsonian features such as shuffling gait, tremor, bradykinesia and rigidity are prevalent. Sleep behaviour disorder, such as acting out attacking themes, may appear years before other signs of the disease (Grossman et al. 2006: 989). 2.2. Risk factors Factors believed to pose a risk for developing dementia include cardiovascular disease, being female, a family history of dementia, Downs syndrome, older age, head trauma, diabetes and lower educational standards (Collins 1997: 186, 188; Lebson et al. 1997: 301). 2.2.1. Cardiovascular disease: Patients may have more than one type of dementia concurrently (Beers et al. 2006: 1811). This is compounded by results of a number of epidemiological studies suggesting that cardiovascular disease increases the risk of developing AD (Stampfer 2006: 12). Using transcranial Doppler ultrasonography Sun et al. (2007: 152) demonstrated diminished cerebral blood flow velocities in MCI patients who also carried the ApoeE4 allele. Risk factors for VaD are believed to include artherogenic factors such as hypertension, hyperlipidaemia, diabetes, and cigarette smoking (Micieli 2006: S38). Conversely, there are indications from clinical trials that nicotine has a protective effect for AD (Breteler et al. 1992: 71). Results of a randomised, double-blind, multicentred trial in which subjects with hypertension were treated with antihypertensives or placebo suggest that hypertension is a risk factor for developing both AD and VaD. Antihypertensives reduced risk by 55%. The results were significant as subjects had similar characteristics, the sample size was large (3228) and equally divided into placebo and treatment groups. Median follow-up was 3.9 years (Forette et al. 2002: 2047). 2.2.2. Head trauma: A meta-analysis by Fleminger et al. (2003: 858) replicated earlier findings by Mortimer et al. (1991) that head injuries pose a risk for AD but only in males, thought to be due to an early protective effect of oestrogens in females (Fleminger et al. 860). Bias may have been introduced into both studies as informants recalled the injuries. 2.2.3. Diabetes mellitus: Given that diabetes mellitus (DM) is a known risk factor for vascular disease it is not surprising that most studies on the development of vascular dementia in DM patients have shown a positive association (Biessels 2004: 10). Studies on DM as a risk factor for AD, however, have yielded conflicting results, possibly due to study limitations such as small sample sizes and selection bias (Leibson et al. 1997: 301). Large longitudinal studies may be more reliable. A population-based historical cohort study of 1,455 cases followed over 9,981 person years found a statistically significant positive association (Leibson et al. 304). According to results from the Framlingham Study, diabetes may not be an independent risk factor for developing AD but risk is strongly associated with possession of the ApoE4 genotype (Akomlafe et al. 2006: 1551). 2.2.4. Hormones: Women are twice more likely than men to suffer from AD. Although this may be partly due to women having a longer life expectancy (Beers et al. 2006: 1814) there is evidence to suggest that a decline in endogenous oestrogen in later life plays a role in its pathogenesis. Oestrogen is believed to stimulate cholinergic activity, reduce oxidative stress related cell damage, reduce vascular risks, reduce Ab formation and promote synaptic activity (Zandi et al. 2002: 2123; Hoskin et al. 2004: 141). Evidence from studies to determine whether oestrogen-containing hormone replacement therapy (HRT) in women has a protective effect on the brain, however, is conflicting (Colucci et al. 2006: 1376) but this may be due to differences in methodology and confounding factors (Resnick and Henderson 2002: 2171). For example, in one large prospective study that found a positive correlation between HRT use and a significant reduction in AD development, patients with dementia were asked q uestions regarding previous use of HRT (Zandi et al. 2124) yet accurate recall in a dementia sufferer cannot be guaranteed. Results of a retrospective case-control study suggesting the likelihood of women developing AD increases with number of pregnancies (Colucci et al. 2006: 1375) could be of little value. Cases with previous head injuries, low educational standards, both considered risk factors for AD (Collins 1997: 186; Fleminger et al. 2003: 858), and those who had used HRT, were not excluded from the study. There is evidence to suggest testosterone may delay AD onset in men. Men over 32 years of age who were free from AD at baseline (n = 574) were followed for a mean of nineteen years (Moffat et al. 2004: 188). Long-term free testosterone levels were significantly lower in men who developed AD. Due to conflicting results and confounding factors in the research the clinical evidence for risk factors for dementia is inconclusive. However, although more research is needed the results can assist in informing herbal practice. 2.3. Orthodox treatment strategies As cholinergic neurotransmitters are believed to have a role in memory function (Grossman et al. 2006: 985) symptomatic treatment for subtypes of dementia is similar and focuses on acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition with drugs such as donepezil, rivastigmine and galantamine (Loveman et al. 2006: 8). According to Delagarza (2003: 1366) loss of cholinergic neurons causes a decrease in acetylcholine and subsequent drop in AChE with a compensatory rise in butylcholinesterase (BChE). Nicotinic receptors also decrease. Rivastigmine also inhibits BChE; galantamine also acts on nicotinic receptors. Depression in dementia is treated with non-anticholinergic antidepressants as anticholinergic drugs exacerbate symptoms (Beers et al. 2006: 1814). Another drug, memantine, a N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptor antagonist (Grossman et al. 987), licensed to treat moderate to severe AD, acts by modulating the action of the neurotransmitter glutamate, which is believed to be associated with c holinergic damage and neurodegeneration when secreted in excess (Loveman et al. 2006: 8). Dizziness, diarrhoea, headaches, nausea and vomiting were found by a meta-analysis of dementia drugs to be common adverse events with anti-cholinesterases and memantine (Loveman et al. 2006: 49). Furthermore, their long-term benefits are inconclusive (Loveman et al. 145). Similarly, their use for vascular or Lewy body dementia is controversial as a review of clinical trials data deems there is insufficient evidence for their efficacy. Trials were of generally poor quality and with inconsistent findings (Maggini et al. 2006: 457). Other potential drugs for AD include 70 new compounds formulated to interfere with the toxic amyloid cascade or to target inflammation, oxidation or apoptosis (Grossman et al 2006: 987). As g-aminobutyric acid (GABA) agonists can impair memory GABA antagonists are also being developed (Association of the British Pharmaceutical Industry). 2.4. Potential herbal treatment strategies In view of the hypothesised pathological sequelae, risk factors and current orthodox treatment of dementias, efficacious herbs for these conditions could potentially have one or more of AChE-inhibiting or cholinergic, antidepressant, hypotensive, hypoglycaemic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, GABA modulator, nicotinic agonist, testosterogenic and oestrogenic actions. According to Kennedy and Scholey (2006: 4614) orthodox AChE inhibitors are not well tolerated by patients as they are toxic alkaloids and European plants traditionally used for cognitive enhancement may therefore provide non-alkaloid safer alternatives. To this end Salvia officinalis, Salvia lavandulaefolia and Melissa officinalis, members of the Labiatae family (Lamiaceae), have been extensively investigated in vitro. 2.4.1. Salvia spp. Salvia is the largest genus in the Labiatae family with over 700 species. The most common European species are Salvia officinalis L (garden or common sage) (Figure 1) and Salvia lavandulaefolia Vahl (Spanish sage), both of which originate on the shores of the Mediterranean (Kennedy and Scholey 2006: 4614). S. officinalis is an aromatic, evergreen shrub up to 75 cm in height with greyish-green oblong to lanceolate opposite leaves covered in a fine down. It has bluish-violet, two-lipped flowers arranged in whorls (Wildwood 1998: 202). S. lavandulaefolia has narrower leaves and a lower spreading habit (Sergei Savelevs Database). Sage was used in medieval Europe as a tisane for prolonging life and is a traditional spring tonic for strengthening weak constitutions (Lipp 1996: 63). According to Culpepper (1826: 147) ‘Sage is of excellent use to help the memory, warming and quickening the senses and an old country remedy, which indicates its efficacy for inflammation: ‘A sunburnt face is eased by washing with sage tea (Page 1978: 41). Other traditional uses are for headaches and migraine (Page: 34). The major active constituents of the leaves of both species are believed to be the volatile oils (1.0-2.8%), containing monoterpenes such as a-pinene, b-pinene, 1-8-cineole, camphor, geraniol and thujone (Kennedy and Scholey 2006: 4615). S. officinalis contains around 50% a- and b- thujone whereas only traces have been found in S. lavandulaefolia. As thujone, a terpenoid ketone, is potentially neurotoxic, S. lavandulaefolia may provide a safer alternative than S. officinalis to orthodox dementia drugs (Perry et al. 1999: 530). However, S. officinalis is toxic only at doses of over 15 g (Grainger-Bissett and Wichtl 2001: 441) but the oil should not be ingested. Both species contain polyphenolic compounds including rosmarinic acid, methyl carnosate, luteolin, luteolin-7-0-glucoside and caffeic acid (Kennedy and Scholey 4615), triterpenes eg oleanic acid and the flavonoids 5-Methoxysalvagenin (Barnes et al. 2002: 408) and hispidulin (Johnston and Beart 2004: 809). 2.4.2. Melissa officinalis M. officinalis L (balm, lemon balm) (Figure 2) originates from the eastern Mediterranean region and western Asia and is now widely cultivated in the west (Grainger Bissett and Wichtl 2001: 329). It is a bushy perennial, about 60 cm high with bright green, lemon-scented leaves in opposite pairs. Small labiate flowers grow in whorls and change colour from pale yellow to white or pale blue. Fresh leaves should be collected when young (Wildwood 1998: 175). It has been in medicinal use as a nervous system restorative for over 2000 years (Kennedy and Scholey 2006: 4617). The London Dispensary (1696 cited in Grieve 1931) states: ‘An essence of Balm, given in Canary wine every morning will renew youth, strengthen the brain John Evelyn wrote: ‘Balm is sovereign for the brain, strengthening the memory and powerfully chasing away melancholy (cited in Grieve 1931). There are no known contraindications or adverse effects (Barnes et al. 2002: 339). M. officinalis contains 0.2-0.3% essential oil (EO) consisting of over 70 components including around 60% monoterpenoid aldehydes and over 35% sesquiterpenes. The principle monoterpenes include citronellol, neral, geranial, methyl citronellate, ocimene; major sesquiterpenes include b-caryophylene and germacrene D. The herb also contains flavonoids, caffeic and chlorogenic glycosides, polyphenolic acids such as rosmarinic acid, and triterpenes (Granger Bissett and Wichtl 2001: 330). 2.5. Possible mode of action of phytochemical constituents in dementia 2.5.1. Antioxidant properties Numerous studies have been conducted on Salvia officinalis in a search for natural antioxidants to use in the food industry. Consequently, results of chemical tests on purified extracts of the herb have suggested that phenolic compounds rosmarinic acid, carnosic acid, carnosol, carnosoic acid, rosmadiol, rosmanol, epirosmanol, isorosmanol, galdosol methyl carnosate, 9-erythrosmanol and luteolin-7-0-glucopyranoside have significant antioxidant activity (Bertelsen et al 1995: 1272; Cuvelier et al. 1994: 665; Pizzale et al. 2002: 1651; Miura et al. 2002: 1848; Wang et al. 1998: 4869). S. lavandulaefolia dried leaf extracts in ethanol, chloroform and water, and various EO monoterpenes were assayed for antioxidant properties in phospholipid microsomes. The extracts and monoterpenes a-pinene, b-pinene, 1-8-cineole, camphor and geraniol and thujone all showed significant antioxidant activity (Perry et al. 2001: 1351). The extracts showed greater antioxidant activity than any individual monoterpenes, which suggested a synergistic effect (Perry et al. 1352). Ferreira et al. (2006: 35) measured the antioxidant properties of EOs, decoctions and ethanolic extracts of M. officinalis and S. officinalis relative to b-carotene. The EO and decoctions of both herbs showed significant antioxidant activity. Lima et al (2007) found methanolic and aqueous extracts of S. officinalis prevented lipid peroxidation in hepatoma cells. As there were more phenolics in the methanol extract it was thought there were other antioxidant compounds in the aqueous extract. Ethanolic EO extract from dried M. officinalis investigated for its ability to inhibit lipid peroxidation in vitro showed a dose-dependent (10-20 mg) 80-90% protection of linoleic acid from peroxyl radical attack. As no rosmarinic acid was detected in the EO the antioxidant action was attributed to squalene (Marongiu et al. 2004: 790). Considering there are potentially 70 constituents in the EO it is unlikely that this would have been the only active phytochemical but composition of the oil varies according to harvesting, origin and climate (Grainger-Bissett and Wichtl 2001: 329). Interestingly, M. officinalis prepared as a tea demonstrated significant antioxidant capacity, which corresponded to high phenolic content, when assayed with the ABTS (2,2/-azinobis 3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) radical decolourisation assay (Ivanova et al. 2005: 147). 2.5.2. Anti-inflammatory activity Chloroform, aqueous and ethanol extracts and monoterpenes of S. lavandulaefolia, were tested for their ability to inhibit formation of pro-inflammatory eicosanoids thromboxane B2 (TXB2) and leukotriene B4 (LTB4) in leucocytes (Perry et al. 2001: 1348). The chloroform and ethanol extracts showed significant inhibition of LTB4. Alpha-pinene and geraniol showed weak selectivity for LTB4 and TXB2 respectively (Perry et al. 1351). The results support the traditional use of S. lavandulaefolia as an anti-inflammatory herb but indicate that it is the sum of the whole plant phytochemicals acting in synergy that are likely to contribute to this action. A standardised ethanolic extract containing 9.9% rosmarinic acid (RA) from the leaves of S. officinalis reduced Ab-induced neuronal cell death, Ab-induced lipid peroxidation, reactive oxygen species formation, DNA fragmentation and tau protein hyperphosphorylation in vitro (Iuvone et al. 2006: 1143). Kimura et al (1987) found rosmarinic acid (RA) had the ability to inhibit pro-inflammatory cytokines in human polymorphonuclear leucocytes (PMNs) in vitro. As both species contain RA these results suggest antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties of M. officinalis and the Salvia spp. against Ab-induced neurotoxicity. 2.5.3. Oestrogenic activity A range of concentrations of EO, ethanolic, chloroform and aqueous extracts and isolated monoterpenes of S. lavandulaefolia were assayed in yeast culture for oestrogen-binding properties. The EO showed weak oestrogenic activity at low concentrations. The aqueous and ethanolic fractions and geraniol showed significant oestrogenic activity (Perry et al. 2001: 1352). The results of this experiment support S. lavandulaefolias use as an oestrogenic herb. The effects of S. officinalis in combination with Medicago sativa were assessed on menopausal symptoms related to oestrogen deprivation. Hot flushes and night sweats were completely eliminated in 20 out of 30 women (De Leo et al. 1998: 207). These effects were attributed to dopaminergic actions but it is not clear for which herb. S. officinalis does, however, contain geraniol found to be oestrogenic in vitro (Perry et al. 2001: 1352). 2.5.4. Acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity M. officinalis EO demonstrated strong AChE inhibition in homogenised human brain tissue but ethanolic extract of the dried leaf had no effect. Ethanolic fresh leaf extract showed a weak effect (Perry et al. 1996: 1064). Conversely, when EOs and ethanolic extracts of M. officinalis were assayed in solution with AChE negligible results were obtained for its inhibition by EO and significant results for its ethanolic extract (Ferreira et al. 2006: 34). Dried, reconstituted ethanolic, ethyl acetate or aqueous extracts of M. officinalis, yielding 10mg/ml, demonstrated weak AChE inhibitory activity when assayed in a chemical system using thin layer chromatography (Salah and Jà ¤ger 2005: 146). The herbs were purchased from local suppliers in the Lebanon so their quality is unknown. S. officinalis EO and ethanolic extract assayed in solution with AChE showed moderate AChE inhibitory activity (Ferreira et al. 2006: 34). Moderate (dose-dependent) AChE and weak BChE inhibition was demonstrated by ethanolic extracts of fresh and dried S. officinalis and S. lavandulaefolia in human brain homogenates. The EOs had significant effects but not the individual constituents (camphor, thujone, cineole, caffeic acid and borneol) (Perry et al. 1996: 1066). The findings suggest a major synergistic effect of the constituents (Perry et al. 2000: 895), which was later confirmed by Savelev et al. (2003: 667). The results for camphor conflict with another experiment in which S. lavandulaefolia EO and isolated monoterpenes a-pinene, 1-8-cineole and camphor demonstrated AChE inhibitory activity in human erythrocytes. Ethanolic extracts of dried S. officinalis, S. lavandulaefolia and M. officinalis were assayed for acetylcholine (ACh) receptor activity in human brain homogenate. All plants demonstrated ACh receptor activity and M. officinalis had the highest nicotinic displacement value (Wake et al. 2000: 108). 2.5.5. GABA modulation Methanol extract from S officinalis leaves revealed the flavonoids apigenin, hispidulin and cirsimaritin functioning as benzodiazepine receptor-active components (Kavvadias et al. 2003: 113), suggesting a potential calming effect for the herb, which may be relevant to AD. 2.6. Evaluation of in vitro studies According to the results all three herbs may have AChE inhibitory, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, and S. lavandulaefolia and S. officinalis may have and oestrogenic properties (Appendix I, Table 1, page 36) and a sedative effect for S. officinalis. Although these results are interesting in vitro systems cannot be extrapolated to humans and clinical evidence is necessary to support findings. For example, they cannot determine effective human dosage or mode of administration. They largely do not account for potential synergistic effects of the herbs nor do they provide an indication of in vivo physiological, pathological and genetic, or environmental, influences. Furthermore, the extent to which phytochemicals in herbs are effective in dementia may depend upon their bioavailability in the brain (Anekonda and Reddy 2005: 371). It is worth noting, however, that as terpenoids tend to be lipophilic they are able to cross the blood brain barrier (Houghton and Howes 2005: 12). Some results are conflicting but they may depend on methodological quality and design. The experiments cited above vary widely in their approach with regard to extraction methods and assay methods. Savelev (2003: 667) has demonstrated how two different methods used for exploring interactions between the same agents may give different results when applied to the same set of data. Consistency of results may also be affected by differences in harvesting times and quality of herbs. Results for M. officinalis are particularly inconsistent but, according to Perry et al. (1996: 1068) most commercial sources of the EO are adulterated. Additionally, variation in media composition is known to affect the outcome of in vitro tests (Maurer and Kuschinsky 2006: 73). Consequently, in vitro experiments can only provide an indication of the clinical efficacy of therapeutic interventions. However, despite the inherent difficulties of in vitro research with herbs, there is considerable consistency with their potential value in dementia prophylaxis and management (Appendix I, Table I, page 36). Promising results in vitro of constituents of plants traditionally used to enhance memory, and subsequent interest in their potential actions in the brains of human patients, has generated clinical trials of M. officinalis and Salvia spp. for dementia. These will be reviewed. 3. Method A computerised literature search was conducted on the Allied and Complementary Medicine Database (AMED) including CINAHL Database, EMBASE, Pascal Biomed, Biological Abstracts, RCN Journals Database and IPA (International Pharmaceutical Abstracts); PubMed, the Cochrane Collaboration, Bandolier, the NHS Centre for Reviews, The National Research Register, ADEAR (Alzheimers Disease Education and Referral Centre database), PLoS (Public Library of Science), Herbalgram and Alt HealthWatch as well as hand-searching in books and journals. Literature searches dated back to 1985 and the final search was in April 2007. Key words in medical subject headings (MeSH) for an initial search in various Boolean combinations were: memory, cognitive dysfunction, dementia, Alzheimers, herbal, botanicals, phytotherapy, complementary and alternative. Also, in a second search these MeSh terms were entered with key herbs: Salvia, sage, Melissa and lemon balm. Inclusion criteria Controlled clinical trials, observational studies and case reports. Herbs for which there are at least two clinical studies in relation to cognitive enhancement. Exclusion criteria Due to the limitations and ethical considerations of animal experiments the review is restricted to human trials. Trials with combined preparations are excluded. Due to time constraints and a restriction to papers in the English language a complete systematic review is not viable at this time. To eliminate

Telling America s Story Essay -- William F. Lewis Essays

Telling America 's Story The three essays of rhetorical criticism, Telling America 's Story: Narrative Form and the Regan Presidency by William F. Lewis, The "Promiscuous Audience" Controversy and the Emergence of the Early Woman 's Rights Movement by Susan Zaeske, and Medicine, Rhetoric, and Euthanasia: A Case Study in the Workings of a Postmodern Discourse by Michael J. Hyde each employ a variety of strategies to examine the rhetoric of three distinct situations. This paper will attempt to dissect each of the essays in a comparative manner. Specifically, it will evaluate the introductions, how effectively they are constructed, and how the essays follow according to the expectations set forth in the introductions. In Telling America 's Story, Lewis starts by providing a quick explanation of the country's status as Regan entered office. The reader is instantly introduced to "the Western world's most gifted communicator." Lewis does not leave the reader with that viewpoint for long as he goes on to explain the views of Regan's critics. Arguments of Regan's "ideology without ideas" and the New Republic editor's comment that "Ronald Regan has never let the facts get in the way of a good story" begin to steer the reader toward a more objective state of mind. A fair balance of the two viewpoints is maintained throughout the piece, but the overall feel of it seems to be geared toward the latter. It is not until half way down the second page of his essay that Lewis clearly states his purpose, to "account for the distinctive reputation, style, and effect of Ronald Regan's discourse". He even lists the two objectives that his essay will accomplish, which are explained later under headings that bear the same name as the stated ... ...ike Lewis's topic. The question/answer method is effective in this essay because it gives the reader something to prepare for. The reader knows what to look for in the rest of essay and will be more attentive when reading. She does not leave the reader hanging; the rest of the essay is distinctly laid out and easily answers all questions. The review of these essays showed that while rhetorical criticism does need to have formal structure, there are many ways for a critic to accomplish their objectives within the confines that basic structure. Although it is not always best choice for every situation, I feel that a shorter, more direct approach to an introduction, as in Hyde's piece, is the most effective. I also thought that the question/answer format worked well for Zaske. It may have been the topic, but I found that the Hyde essay was the most engaging overall. Telling America 's Story Essay -- William F. Lewis Essays Telling America 's Story The three essays of rhetorical criticism, Telling America 's Story: Narrative Form and the Regan Presidency by William F. Lewis, The "Promiscuous Audience" Controversy and the Emergence of the Early Woman 's Rights Movement by Susan Zaeske, and Medicine, Rhetoric, and Euthanasia: A Case Study in the Workings of a Postmodern Discourse by Michael J. Hyde each employ a variety of strategies to examine the rhetoric of three distinct situations. This paper will attempt to dissect each of the essays in a comparative manner. Specifically, it will evaluate the introductions, how effectively they are constructed, and how the essays follow according to the expectations set forth in the introductions. In Telling America 's Story, Lewis starts by providing a quick explanation of the country's status as Regan entered office. The reader is instantly introduced to "the Western world's most gifted communicator." Lewis does not leave the reader with that viewpoint for long as he goes on to explain the views of Regan's critics. Arguments of Regan's "ideology without ideas" and the New Republic editor's comment that "Ronald Regan has never let the facts get in the way of a good story" begin to steer the reader toward a more objective state of mind. A fair balance of the two viewpoints is maintained throughout the piece, but the overall feel of it seems to be geared toward the latter. It is not until half way down the second page of his essay that Lewis clearly states his purpose, to "account for the distinctive reputation, style, and effect of Ronald Regan's discourse". He even lists the two objectives that his essay will accomplish, which are explained later under headings that bear the same name as the stated ... ...ike Lewis's topic. The question/answer method is effective in this essay because it gives the reader something to prepare for. The reader knows what to look for in the rest of essay and will be more attentive when reading. She does not leave the reader hanging; the rest of the essay is distinctly laid out and easily answers all questions. The review of these essays showed that while rhetorical criticism does need to have formal structure, there are many ways for a critic to accomplish their objectives within the confines that basic structure. Although it is not always best choice for every situation, I feel that a shorter, more direct approach to an introduction, as in Hyde's piece, is the most effective. I also thought that the question/answer format worked well for Zaske. It may have been the topic, but I found that the Hyde essay was the most engaging overall.

Comparing the Dream Deferred in Raisin in the Sun and Death of a Salesman :: comparison compare contrast essays

A Dream Deferred in A Raisin in the Sun and Death of a Salesman Most everyone in America would like to achieve financial success. Sometimes living in a capitalistic society entices many to become too materialistic. Greed is the characteristic that many Americans then attain. This is all in pursuit of the American dream. For most Americans, this high status is very difficult to achieve. In Arthur Miller's, Death of a Salesman, we see how difficult it was for Willy Loman and his sons to achieve this so called American dream, and these people were proud white Americans. In Lorraine Hansberry's ,A Raisin in the Son, she examines an African-American's family's struggle to break out of the poverty that is preventing them from achieving some sort of financial stability, or the American Dream. It focuses on Walter's attempt in "making it," or "being somebody." She also analyzes how race prejudice and economic insecurity affect a black mans role in his own family, his ability to provide, and his identity. What Hansberry is trying to illustrate is how West ern civilization has conditioned society to have materialistic aspirations and how these ideals corrupt the black man's identity and his family. Many black men have to deal with a systematic racism that effects their role in society. The frustrations that a black man has to deal with can affect the family a great deal. For example, if Walter gets upset at work or has a bad day, he can't get irate with his boss and risk loosing his job; instead he takes it out on his wife Ruth. Also, the job that he holds can only provide so much to the family. He's not even capable of providing his son Travis with some pocket change without becoming broke himself. What type of "breadwinner" can a black man be in America? Walter Younger is thirty-five years old and all he is, is a limousine driver. He is unhappy with his job and he desperately seeks for an opportunity to improve his family standing. He tells his mother how he feels about his job when she wouldn't give him the ten thousand dollars; I open and close car doors all day long. I drive a man around in his limousine and I say,"Yes sir;no sir,very good sir; shall I take the drive, sir? " Mama, that ain't no kind of job... that ain't nothing at all. Comparing the Dream Deferred in Raisin in the Sun and Death of a Salesman :: comparison compare contrast essays A Dream Deferred in A Raisin in the Sun and Death of a Salesman Most everyone in America would like to achieve financial success. Sometimes living in a capitalistic society entices many to become too materialistic. Greed is the characteristic that many Americans then attain. This is all in pursuit of the American dream. For most Americans, this high status is very difficult to achieve. In Arthur Miller's, Death of a Salesman, we see how difficult it was for Willy Loman and his sons to achieve this so called American dream, and these people were proud white Americans. In Lorraine Hansberry's ,A Raisin in the Son, she examines an African-American's family's struggle to break out of the poverty that is preventing them from achieving some sort of financial stability, or the American Dream. It focuses on Walter's attempt in "making it," or "being somebody." She also analyzes how race prejudice and economic insecurity affect a black mans role in his own family, his ability to provide, and his identity. What Hansberry is trying to illustrate is how West ern civilization has conditioned society to have materialistic aspirations and how these ideals corrupt the black man's identity and his family. Many black men have to deal with a systematic racism that effects their role in society. The frustrations that a black man has to deal with can affect the family a great deal. For example, if Walter gets upset at work or has a bad day, he can't get irate with his boss and risk loosing his job; instead he takes it out on his wife Ruth. Also, the job that he holds can only provide so much to the family. He's not even capable of providing his son Travis with some pocket change without becoming broke himself. What type of "breadwinner" can a black man be in America? Walter Younger is thirty-five years old and all he is, is a limousine driver. He is unhappy with his job and he desperately seeks for an opportunity to improve his family standing. He tells his mother how he feels about his job when she wouldn't give him the ten thousand dollars; I open and close car doors all day long. I drive a man around in his limousine and I say,"Yes sir;no sir,very good sir; shall I take the drive, sir? " Mama, that ain't no kind of job... that ain't nothing at all.

Night World : The Chosen Chapter 15

The sound of her own voice sent Rashel spinning out of the light. It was as if she were emerging from deep water- from one world into another. Or as if she were re-entering her own body. For a moment everything was confusion, and Rashel wasn't sure of where she was or how she was positioned†¦ and then she felt her arms and legs and saw yellow light. Lamplight. She was in an upstairs room in a mansion on a private island, and Quinn was holding her. They had somehow ended up on the floor, half kneeling, half supported by the wall, their arms around each other, Rashel's head on his shoulder. She had no idea when he'd stopped biting her. She also had no idea how much time had passed. She coughed a little, shaken by what had just happened. That other place, with the light-it still seemed more real than the hard shiny boards of the floor underneath her and the white walls of the room. But it also seemed encased in its own reality. Like a dream. She didn't know if they would ever be able to get back there again. â€Å"Quinn?† He was Quinn again. Not John. â€Å"Yes.† â€Å"Do you know what happened? I mean, do you understand it?† â€Å"I think,† he said, and his voice was gentle and precise, â€Å"that sharing blood can strengthen a telepathic bond. I've always been able to block it out when I fed before, but†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He didn't finish. â€Å"But it happened that other time. Or something like it happened. When I first met you.† â€Å"Yes. Well. Well, I think it's†¦ there's something called†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He gave up and resorted to nonverbal communication. There's something called the soulmate principle. I've never believed in it. I've laughed at people who talked about it. I would have bet my life that- â€Å"What is it, Quinn?† Rashel had heard of it, too, especially recently. But it wasn't something from her world, and she wanted a Night Person to explain. It's the idea that everyone has one and just one soul-mate in the world, and that if you find them, you recognize them immediately. And†¦ well, that's that. â€Å"But it's not supposed to happen between humans and Night People. Right?† There are some people who think that it is happening-now-for some reason-especially between humans and Night People. The Redferns seem to be getting it in particular. There was a pause, then Quinn said aloud, â€Å"I should probably apologize to some of them, actually.† He sounded bemused. Rashel sat up, which was difficult. She didn't want to let go of Quinn. He kept hold of her fingers, which helped a little. He looked more mussed than he had down near the wharf, his neat hair disordered, his eyes large and dark and dazed. She met his gaze directly. â€Å"You think we're soulmates?† â€Å"Well.† He blinked. â€Å"Do you have a better explanation?† â€Å"No.† She took a breath. â€Å"Do you still want to make me a vampire?† He stared at her, and something flamed and then fell in pain in his eyes. For an instant he looked as if she'd hit him-then all she could see was regret. â€Å"Oh, Rashel† In one motion he caught her and held her. His face was pressed to her hair. She could feel him breathing like some stricken creature-and then she felt him regain control, grabbing discipline from somewhere, wrapping himself in it. He rested his chin on her head. â€Å"I'm sorry you have to ask that, but I understand. I don't want to make you a vampire. I want-â€Å" I want you to be what you were two minutes ago. That happy, that idealistic†¦. He sounded as if it were something that had been lost forever. But Rashel felt a new happiness, and a new confidence. He had changed. She could sense how much he had changed already. They were in the real world, and he wasn't raving about needing to kill her, or her needing to kill him. â€Å"I just wanted to be sure,† she said. She tightened her own arms around him. â€Å"I don't know what's going to happen-but as long as we're right together, I think I can face it.† I think we live or die together from now on, Quinn said simply. Yes, Rashel thought. She could still feel lingering sadness in Quinn, and confusion in herself, but they were right together. She didn't need to doubt him anymore. They trusted each other. â€Å"We have to do something about the people downstairs,† she said. â€Å"Yes.† â€Å"But we can't kill them.† â€Å"No. There's been enough killing. It has to stop.† Quinn sounded like a swimmer who'd been tumbling in a riptide, and whose feet had finally found solid ground. Rashel sat up to look at him. â€Å"But we can't just let them walk out of here. What if they try it again? I mean, whoever set this bloodfeast up†¦Ã¢â‚¬  She suddenly realized that she had asked everybody else, but not him. â€Å"Quinn, who did set this up?† He smiled, a faint echo of his old savage smile. Now it was grim and self-mocking. â€Å"I don't know.† â€Å"You don't know?† â€Å"Some vampire who wanted to get the made vampires together. But I've never met him. Lily was the go-between, but I'm not sure she knows either. She only spoke to him on the phone. Neither of us asked a lot of questions. We were doing it for the money.† He said it flatly, not sparing himself. And to be rebellious, Rashel thought. To be as bad and as damned as possible, because you figured you might as well. She said, â€Å"Whoever it is might just go somewhere else and find somebody else to get his slaves for him. Those seven guys could be having a new bloodfeast next month.† â€Å"That has to be stopped, too,† Quinn said. â€Å"How to stop it without violence, that's the question.† His fingers were still tight on Rashel's, but he was staring into the distance, lost in grim and competent thought. It was a new side of Quinn. Rashel had seen him in almost every mood from despairing to manic, but she had never worked with him before. Now she realized that he was going to make a strong and resourceful ally. Suddenly Quinn seemed to focus. â€Å"I've got it,† he said. He smiled suddenly, mocking but without the bitterness. â€Å"When violence won't work, there's no other choice but to try persuasion.† â€Å"That's not funny.† â€Å"It's not meant to be.† â€Å"You're going to say, ‘Please don't kill any more young girls'?† â€Å"I'm going to say, ‘Please don't kill any more young girls or I'll report you to the Joint Council.' Listen, Rashel.† He took her by the arms, his eyes flashing with excitement. â€Å"I have some authority in the Night World-I'm the Redfern heir. And Hunter Redfern has more. Between us, we can make all kinds of trouble for these made vampires.† â€Å"But Fayth-a friend of mine-said they were all so powerful.† In the intensity of the moment, Rashel almost missed the fact that she'd just called Fayth her friend. Quinn was shaking his head. â€Å"No, you have to understand. These aren't rogues, they're Night World citizens. And what they're doing is completely illegal. You can't just kill a bunch of girls from one area without permission. Slavery's illegal, bloodfeasts are illegal. And no matter how powerful they are, they can't stand up against the Night World Council.† â€Å"But-â€Å" â€Å"We threaten them with exposure to the Council. With exposure to Hunter Redfern-and to the lamia. The lamia will go crazy at the thought of made vampires getting together in some kind of alliance. They'll take it as a threat of civil war.† It might work, Rashel was thinking. The made vampires were just individuals-they'd be up against whole lamia families. Especially against the Redfern family, the oldest and most respected clan of vampires. â€Å"Everybody's scared of Hunter Redfern,† she said slowly. â€Å"He's got tremendous influence. He practically owns the Council. He could run them out of the Night World if he wanted. I think they'll listen.† â€Å"You really do think of him as a father, don't you?† Rashel said, her voice soft. She searched Quinn's eyes. â€Å"Whatever you say about hating him-you respect him.† â€Å"He's not as bad as most. He has†¦ honor, I guess. Usually.† And he's a New Englander, Rashel thought. That means he's against vice. She considered another moment, then she nodded. Her heart was beating fast, but she could feel a smile breaking on her face. â€Å"Let's try persuasion.† They stood-and then they paused a moment, looking at each other. We're strong, Rashel thought. We've got unity. If anyone can do this, we can. She picked up her knife almost absent-mindedly. It was a piece of art, a valued possession, and she didn't want to lose it. They walked down the stairs side by side. Music was still blasting from the gathering room at the end of the hall. It hadn't been that long, Rashel realized. The whole world had changed since she'd been in this hallway-but somehow it had all happened in minutes. Now, Quinn said silently before they went in. There shouldn't be any danger-/ don't think they'll be stupid enough to attack me-but be alert anyway. Rashel nodded. She felt cool and businesslike, and she thought she was perfectly rational. It was only later that she realized they had walked into the room like little lambs into the tiger's lair, still dizzy and reeling from the discovery of love. Quinn went in first and she could hear voices stop as he did. Then she was walking through the door, into that ruddy flickering room with shadows dancing on the walls. And there they were again, those handsome young guys who looked like a TV-series ensemble. They were looking at Quinn with various expressions of interest and surprise. When they saw her, the expressions sharpened to pleasure and inquiry. â€Å"Hey, Quinn!† â€Å"Hi there, Quinn.† â€Å"So you've arrived at last. You've kept us waiting long enough.† That from the dark one who was looking at his watch. Quinn said, â€Å"Turn off the music.† Someone went to a built-in mahogany cabinet and turned off an expensive stereo. Quinn was looking around the room, as if to appraise each of them. â€Å"Campbell,† he said, nodding slightly. â€Å"Radhu. Azarius. Max.† â€Å"So you're the one who brought us here,† Campbell said. He had rusty hair and a sleepy smile. â€Å"We've all been dying to find out.† â€Å"Who's that?† someone else added, peering at Rashel. â€Å"The first course?† Quinn smiled fractionally, with a look that made the guy who'd asked step backward. â€Å"No, she's not the first course,† he said softly. â€Å"In fact, unfortunately, all the courses have disappeared.† There was a silence. Everyone stared at him. Then the guy with the silver-blond hair said, â€Å"What?† â€Å"They've all-just-disappeared.† Quinn made an expressive gesture. â€Å"Escaped. Vanished.† Another silence. Rashel didn't like this one. She was beginning to get an odd impression from the group, as if she were in a room, not with people, but with animals that had been kept past their feeding time. â€Å"What the hell are you talking about?† the dark one, the one Quinn had called Azarius, said tightly. â€Å"What kind of joke is this?† Campbell added. â€Å"It's not a joke. The girls who were brought for the bloodfeast are gone,† Quinn said slowly and distinctly, just in case anybody hadn't gotten it yet. Then he said, â€Å"And as a matter of fact, it's a good thing.† â€Å"A good thing? Quinn, we're starving.† â€Å"They can't have gone too far,† the silver blond said. â€Å"After all, it's an island. Let's go and-† â€Å"Nobody's going anywhere,† Quinn said. Rashel moved closer to him. She was still nervous. These guys were on the edge of getting out of control. But she trusted Quinn, and she could tell they were afraid of him. And, she told herself, they'll be even more afraid in a minute. â€Å"Look, Quinn, if you brought us here to-† â€Å"I didn't bring you here. In fact, I don't know who brought you here, but it doesn't matter. I've got the same thing to say to all of you. There isn't going to be any bloodfeast, now or ever. And anybody who objects to that can take their problem to the Council.† That shut everyone up. They simply stared at Quinn. It was clearly the last thing they expected. â€Å"In fact, if you don't want the Council to hear about this, I'd advise everybody to go home quietly and pretend it never happened. And to have a headache the next time anybody asks you to a bloodfeast.† This silence was broken by somebody muttering, â€Å"You dirty†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Meanwhile, Rashel's mind had begun to tick. Just how were these guys going to go home quietly? There weren't any boats. Unless the host brought one when he came-if he came. And where was he, anyway? And where was Lily? â€Å"Quinn,† she said softly. But somebody else was speaking. â€Å"You'd tell the Council?† a lean tough-looking guy with brown hair asked. â€Å"No, I'd let Hunter Redfern tell the Council,† Quinn said. â€Å"And I don't really think you want that. He might put it in a bad light. Raise your hands everybody who thinks Hunter Redfern would approve of this little party.† â€Å"Do I get a vote?† The voice came from the doorway. It was deeper than the voices of the young guys in the room. Rashel recognized the sound of danger instinctively and turned. And later it seemed to her that even before she turned, she knew what she would see. A tall man standing easily, with a girl and a child behind him in the shadows. He was colored by the flickering ruby light of the fire, but Rashel could still see that his hair was red as blood. And his eyes were golden. Golden like hawk's eyes, like amber. Like Lily Redfern's eyes. Why hadn't she realized that before? The face was a face she would never forget. It came to her every night in her dreams. It was the man who'd killed her mother. The man who'd chased her through the climbing structure, promising her ice cream. All at once, Rashel was five years old again, weak and helpless and terrified. â€Å"Hello, Quinn,† Hunter Redfern said. Quinn was absolutely still beside Rashel. She had the feeling that he couldn't even think. And she understood why. She'd seen into his mind; she knew what Hunter represented to him. Stern necessity, even ruthlessness, but honor, too. And he was just now finding out that that was all a lie. â€Å"Don't look so upset,† Hunter said. He stepped forward with an amiable smile. His golden eyes were fixed on Quinn; he hadn't even glanced at Rashel yet. â€Å"There's a reason for all this.† He gestured to the vampires in the room, and his voice was gentle, rational. â€Å"We need allies in the Council; the lamia are getting too lax. Once I've explained it all to you, you'll understand.† The way he'd made Quinn understand that Quinn had to be a vampire, Rashel thought. The way he'd made Quinn understand that humans were the enemy. She was shaking all over, but there was a white-hot fire inside her that burned through the fear. â€Å"Was there a reason for killing my mother?† she said. The golden eyes turned toward her. Hunter looked mildly startled. Beside her, Quinn's head jerked around. â€Å"I was only five, but I remember it all,† Rashel said. She took a step closer to Hunter. â€Å"You killed her just like that-snapped her neck. Was there a reason for killing Timmy? He was four years old and you drank his blood. Was there a reason for killing my great-aunt? You set a fire to get me, but it got her.† She stopped, staring into those predatory golden eyes. She'd searched for this man for twelve years, and now he didn't seem to recognize her. â€Å"What's wrong, did you hunt too many little kids to keep track of?† she said. â€Å"Or are you so crazy you believe your own public image?† Quinn whispered, â€Å"Rashel†¦Ã¢â‚¬  She turned. â€Å"I'm sure. He was the one.† In that instant, she saw Quinn's face harden implacably against the man who'd made him a Red-fern. His eyes went dark as black holes-no light escaped. Rashel suddenly had the feeling of glacial cold. Look into eyes like that and what you saw alone might kill you, she thought. But she had her own fire inside her, her own vengeance. The knife was in her waistband. If she could just get close enough†¦. She moved toward Hunter Redfern again. â€Å"You destroyed my life. And you don't even remember, do you?† â€Å"I remember,† the little shadow beside him said. And then the world flipped and Rashel felt the floor slipping away from her. The child behind Hunter was walking into the light-and suddenly she could smell plastic and old socks, and she could feel vinyl under her hands. Memories were flooding up so quickly that she was drowning in them. All she could say was â€Å"Oh, Timmy. Oh, God, Timmy.† He was standing there, just as she'd seen him last, twelve years ago. Shiny dark hair and wide tilted blue eyes. Except that the eyes weren't exactly a child's eyes. They were some strange and terrible combination of child and adult. There was too much knowledge in them. â€Å"You left me,† Timmy said. â€Å"You didn't care about me.† Rashel sank her teeth into her lip, but tears spilled anyway. â€Å"I'm sorry†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Nobody cared about me,† Timmy said. He reached up to take Hunter's sleeve. â€Å"No humans, anyway. Humans are vermin.† He smiled his old sweet smile. Hunter looked down at Timmy, then up at Quinn. â€Å"It's amazing how quickly they learn. You haven't met Timmy, have you? He's been living in Vegas, but I think he can be useful here.† He turned to Rashel and his eyes were pure evil. â€Å"Of course I remember you. It's just that you've changed a little; you've gotten older. You're different from us, you see.† â€Å"You're weak,† Lily put in. She had stepped forward, too, to stand beside her father. Now she linked her arm in his. â€Å"You're short-lived. You're not very bright, and not very important. In a word, you're†¦ dinner.† Hunter smiled. â€Å"Well put.† Then he dropped the smile and said to Quinn, â€Å"Step away from her, son.† Quinn moved slightly, closer to Rashel. â€Å"This is my soulmate,† he said, in his softest and most disturbing voice. â€Å"And we're leaving together.† Hunter Redfern stared at him for several long moments. Something like disbelief flickered in his eyes. Then he recovered and said quietly, â€Å"What a shame.† Behind Rashel there were noises of stirring. It was as if a hot wind from the savanna had blown in, and the lions had caught its scent. â€Å"You know, I was already worried about you, Quinn,† Hunter said. â€Å"Last summer you let Ash and his sisters get away with running out on the enclave. Don't think I didn't notice that. You're getting lax, getting soft. There's too much of that going around lately.† Stand back to back, Quinn told Rashel. She was already moving into position. The vampires were forming a ring, encircling them. She could see smiles on every face. â€Å"And Lily says you've been strange these last few days-moody. She said you seemed preoccupied with a human girl.† Rashel drew her knife. The vampires were watching her with the fixed attention of big felines watching their prey. Absolute focus. â€Å"But the soulmate idea-that's really the last straw. It's like a disease infecting our people. You understand why I have to stamp it out.† Hunter paused. â€Å"For old time's sake, let's finish this quickly.† A voice that wasn't Quinn's added in Rashel's mind, / told you I'd see you later. Rashel stood on the balls of her feet, letting Hunter's words slide off her and drip away. She couldn't think about him right now. She had to concentrate on awareness, open her energy, and free her mind. This was going to be the biggest fight of her fife, and she needed zanshin. But even as she found it, a small voice inside her was whispering the truth. There were simply too many vampires. She and Quinn couldn't hold them all off at once.

Summarization of Antonin Scalia-God’s Justice and Ours

God's Justice and Ours† Antonin Scalia opens up his introduction stating he wants to make clear that his moral views on capital punishment do not have persuasion on how his referendums in capital cases that come to the Supreme Court. Furthermore, Antonin Scalia is not daunted to state his views on church-state issues and has consistently shown he has scant use for the First Amendment's separation of church and state.In an essay he rites titled, â€Å"God's Justice and Ours,† Scalia explains why he is compelled to support the death penalty despite his church's opposition to the practice. Moreover, he explains his worldview about how a government acquires moral authority and why the nation-state can permissibly eradicate its own citizens. He concludes that government is an instrument of God and an institution that operates with â€Å"divine authority behind† it.In addition, he goes on to write that people of faith should fght as effectively as possible† any ef fort to â€Å"obscure† our government's religious underpinnings. However, the complication is that Scalia is one-ninth of this country's highest Judicial body. He has unique responsibilities that demand strict neutrality and objectivity. While Scalia can be credulous on whatever he wants about issues of faith, he may not practice religion as the basis for Judicial rulings.In short, he avowed on the Bible to uphold the Constitution, not the other way around. In conclusion, Scalia has relinquished any pretense about keeping a healthy distance between the institutions of religion and government. He has consciously and intentionally turned his back on the framework set up by the Founding Fathers, which created a secular government based on a secular Constitution adopted by â€Å"we the people. † Our laws were not created to enforce a divine authority, however according to the Constitution, to â€Å"form a more perfect union.